Hundreds of studies have been published that test some aspect of GST or that apply GST to crime, delinquency, or other deviant behaviors. However, Froggio (2007) argues that despite evidence of correlation between delinquency and assumptions of General Strain Theory, the correlation is not clear cut in that many of the surveys conducted were limited. 3 What is the assumption of strain theories? This population could include, for example, individuals who are low in social and self-control, belong to gangs, are strongly committed to street culture or live on the street. Agnew (1992): General Strain Theory. Gang fights, vandalism, and other such delinquencies do not seem to be directed toward the achievement of conventional success goals. If you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with it. Third, aggressive individuals tend to sort themselves into environments characterized by high levels of strain. Overhaul of Merton's Strain Theory. Variation in crime across macro-level social units is typically explained in terms of deviant subcultures or breakdowns in social control. General strain theory (GST) is the latest and broadest version of strain theory (Agnew, 2006). Rather, deviant responses to strain are most likely when multiple factors converge: The choice of a coping strategy such as crime is likely influenced by the convergence of several factors, including the characteristics of the individual, the characteristics of the stressor, the appraisal of the stressor, and the circumstances surrounding the stressor (Agnew, 2013, p. 660). Abstract. What are the 5 reactions to strain? They try to increase the likelihood that youth . . Research on other aspects of the theory, however, has produced inconsistent results. We're here to answer any questions you have about our services. The study measured eight different types of strains (i.e., racism, gender discrimination, and teachers' emotional punishment . If your specific country is not listed, please select the UK version of the site, as this is best suited to international visitors. GST, then, is distinguished from other criminological theories by the central role it assigns to negative emotions in the etiology of offending (Agnew, 1995a). The full potential of GST has yet to be realized, however, as the theory continues to evolve and further testing is required. Merton (1938) illustrates four responses to this strain. . Too much emphasis is placed on stats- overrepresentation of the lower classes. What Are the Strengths and Weaknesses of Mertons Strain Theory in Understanding Crime paper focuses on the social strain theory. Until then I believe that General Strain Theory is incomplete but if incorporated with other theories it can be helpful in explaining some delinquency. For example, in empirical tests, the experience of strain or goal-blockage did not prove to be a strong predictor of delinquency. Measures of individual-level strain, however, exerted significant effects on delinquent behavior. Examples of interventions that may have potential in this area include parenting and anger-management programs (for overviews, see Agnew, 1995b, 2006). According to general strain theory (introduced by Robert Agnew in 1992), strain triggered negative emotions, which in turn necessitated coping. Whereas Broidy and Agnew (1997) predicted that depression mitigates the criminogenic effect of anger, thereby suppressing female delinquency, DeCoster and Zito (2010) find no such mitigating effect. Previous empirical tests of general strain theory support this theory, but their shortcomings preclude the drawing of definitive conclusions. This can lead to strain due to inequity, where an individual will feel that they are unequal to those of their peers and will subsequently increase the chances they engage in delinquency. Do you have a 2:1 degree or higher? General strain theory (GST) states that strains increase the likelihood of crime, particularly strains that are high in magnitude, are seen as unjust, are associated with low social control, and create some pressure or incentive for criminal coping. Commonality? They also find support for the interpersonal friction argument, noting that, in such schools, students in general (not just angry students) have an elevated risk of becoming involved in fights. Crime is one possible response. Google Scholar. Moreover, Froggio (2007), argues that surveys in the future should incorporate Agnews assumptions of when crime is most likely to occur. Unexpectedly, they observe that the females in their sample exhibit higher levels of anger and depression. Mertons theory focuses on the individual but some crime is a collective action. GST represents a revision and extension of prior strain theories, including the classic strain theories of Merton (1938), Cohen (1955), and Cloward and Ohlin (1960). In contrast, strains that involve accidents, illness, that are due to natural causes, or that are associated with prosocial activities are expected to have a weak relationship to offending (see also Felson, Osgood, Horney, & Wiernik, 2012). My 1985 article presented a revised strain theory, which stated that delinquency results from the blockage of pain-avoidance behavior as well as the blockage of goal-seeking behavior. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below: If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have your work published on UKEssays.com then please: Our academic writing and marking services can help you! Aggressive children may also frustrate their peers and teachers, leading to social rejection. Continuing Relevance. However, research on the conditioning effects of these factors has produced mixed results. To make strain theory more applicable to juvenile delinquency, Cohen offered a revised version of the theory, which placed less emphasis on monetary success. Depending upon the type of stress they encounter, there is a greater likelihood that certain individuals may choose to commit a crime. As predicted by GST, a number of studies indicate that the relationship between strain and offending is partly mediated by anger, and this is especially true of studies that focus on violent behavior (e.g., Aseltine, Gore, & Gordon, 2000; Agnew, 1985; Brezina, 1998; Broidy, 2001; Hay & Evans, 2006; Jang & Johnson, 2003; Mazerolle & Piquero, 1997, 1998; Mazerolle, Piquero, & Capowich, 2003; Moon et al., 2009). Certain categories of youth may lack conventional sources of social support, especially young people who have poor relationships with their parents and teachers. In addition to subcultural orientations and breakdowns in social control, GST asserts that high-crime communities tend to suffer from a relatively high proportion and angry and frustrated residents (Agnew, 1999). Strain theories state that certain strains or stressors increase the likelihood of crime. Based on another longitudinal sample of adolescents, Eitle (2010) finds that increases in strain over time are associated with an increase in future offending, while decreases in strain promote desistance from crime. All work is written to order. What are pharmacy technicians responsibilities? Under this broad definition, GST delineates three major types of strain. The link was not copied. The initial statement of GST (Agnew, 1992), which constituted a more fully developed version of the revised theory, was published several years later under the title, Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Delinquency. This initial statement was followed by several revisions and extensions of GST, including articles that specified gender differences in response to strain (Broidy & Agnew, 1997), the macro-level implications of GST (Agnew, 1999), the types of strain that are most relevant to crime (Agnew, 2001), and that further specified the conditions under which strain will have a greater or lesser effect on crime (Agnew, 2013). Other studies, however, fail to observe the predicted conditioning effects (e.g., Hoffmann & Miller, 1998; Mazerolle & Piquero, 1997; for an overview, see, Agnew, 2006). . For instance, it was argued that individuals experience strain when they aspire to achieve monetary success but do not expect to attain it, because they perceive the goal of success to be out of reach. Further, during the period of adolescence, young people experience a number of biological and social changes that are believed to reduce their levels of social control (Agnew & Brezina, 2015). Merton observed that, in the United States, the cultural ethos of the American Dream encourages all individuals, regardless of circumstance, to strive for personal success, with an emphasis on the accumulation of monetary wealth. Research indicates that most of these strains are related to crime (for an overview, see Agnew, 2006). Crime may be used to reduce or escape from strain, seek revenge against the source of strain or related targets, or alleviate negative emotions. In another early test of GST, Paternoster and Mazerolle (1994) used data from the National Youth Survey to examine the effect of strain on a measure of general delinquency. According to GST, the experience of strain or stress tends to generate negative emotions such as anger, frustration, depression, and despair. In his General Strain Theory, Agnew (2013) suggests that individuals engage in rule-breaking behaviors when they (1) dislike their unjust and involuntary conditions, (2) develop negative. Following the initial statement of GST (Agnew, 1992), Agnew and White (1992) examined the effects of various strains on delinquency, based on a large sample of adolescents. For example, the finding that anger is unrelated to the likelihood of legitimate coping, is a finding that is not assumed in General Strain Theory (Broidy 2001:29), as the theory does in fact predict that negative emotions like anger would be associated with legitimate coping strategies. GST argues that strain occurs when others (1) prevent or threaten to prevent you from achieving positively valued goals, (2) remove or threaten to remove positively valued stimuli that you possess, or (3) present or threaten to present you with . Merton suggests that there are two important elements of social structure. Finally, certain youth are predisposed to cope in a delinquent manner because they possess certain traits that are conducive to offending, such as being impulsive, easily upset, and quick to anger (Agnew et al., 2002). According to Bernard (1990), angry/frustrated individuals often have difficulty trusting others, attribute hostile motives to strangers, and view aggression as appropriate or justifiable in many different circumstances (see also Agnew, 2006). Such traits are said to interfere with the development of strong attachments to conventional others and other stakes in conformity. An example of removing stimuli could be someone shooting up a school because they were bullied, thus terminating the negative stimuli. As a result, they have less to lose by engaging in delinquent responses to strain. What is the assumption of strain theories? Can't escape noxious stimuli. How to Market Your Business with Webinars. For instance, different types of strain may have distinct emotional consequences, leading to distinct behavior outcomes (Ganem, 2010). GST was designed primarily to explain why individuals differ in their levels of crime and delinquency. Lin and Mieczkowski (2011) constructed a composite measure to index the overall standing of young people on various conditioning factors, including moral beliefs, delinquent peer associations, self-control, and self-esteem. As Agnew (2013) observes, the coping process is very complex: [The] examination of the coping process is difficult. According to social disorganization theories, these communities have the lost the ability to control their members due, in part, to the inadequate supervision of young people (e.g., Sampson, Raudenbush, & Earls, 1997). It builds and extends from the fraud triangle theory. (Broidy 2001:10), Lisa Broidy, from the University of New Mexico, examined cross sectional data of 896 undergraduate students from seven different disciplines, who participated in self report surveys. This anger and frustration is thought to be an important source of deviant motivation and is said to be a function of severe and persistent strains. Looking for a flexible role? Some criminologists argue that, relative to males, females have less freedom or opportunity to offend. Scholars have argued that the strain theory was improperly measured suggesting that the main concept of the strain theory was improperly measured in previous research (Burton & Cullen, 1992). Disclaimer: This is an example of a student written essay.Click here for sample essays written by our professional writers. Ignores ruling class power to create and enforce laws to prevent the deviant adaptations (innovations,ritualism,retreatism and rebellion) Takes official statistics at face value. Second, neighborhood-level strain exerted a significant effect on violence in communities characterized by a low level of social support. As Merton recognized, pervasive inequalities in the United States create serious barriers to success for many lower-class individuals. (Note: empirical tests of GST often measure strain in terms of stressful life events, even though many such events would not be expected to have a strong relationship to offending.). Although this definition encompasses the types of strain highlighted by classic strain theorists, it also includes a wide array of stressors that were not considered in earlier versions of strain theory. In such a situation there is a strain between the goals and the means to achieve those goals, and some people turn to crime in order to achieve success. Also found in this study was that females were much less likely to employ illegitimate coping strategies than males, leading Broidy to suggest that future studies of general strain theory should study the effect that gender has on assumptions described in general strain theory. Although difficult, equalizing the opportunity for all to become successful would prove to be effective based on the assumptions of strain theories. Agnew described 4 characteristics of strains that are most likely to lead to crime: 1) strains are seen as unjust, 2) strains are seen as high in magnitude, 3) strains are associated with low social control, and 4) strains create some pressure or incentive to engage in criminal coping. Strain predicted anger in both males and females, but it predicted depression in males only. One weakness of Mertons theory of anomie/strain is that it does not provide a good explanation for economic crimes. Typically, strained individuals pursue legal coping strategies, such as filing a complaint, turning to a friend for emotional support, or hoping for a better future. The experience of chronic or repeated strain, in particular, may weaken relationships with conventional others and therefore result in low social control. People differ in their response to strain and only some strained individualsperhaps a small percentage of strained individualsrespond with offending behavior. Often times anger leads an individual to seek revenge and is also a strong motivator for action. Our academic experts are ready and waiting to assist with any writing project you may have. Most empirical tests of GST have been conducted in the United States and are based on data from adolescent surveys. Furthermore, the high density of strained individuals in such communities is said to generate much interpersonal friction. A test of general strain theory. They are (1) strain as the disjunction between expectations and actual achievements; not achieving these goals is likely to cause anger, dissatisfaction, and disappointment, this cause of strain connects back to previous strain theories, such as Mertons (Agnew 1992:51). These differences, in turn, are linked to the gender gap in delinquent involvement. The major versions of strain theory describe 1) the particular strains most likely to lead to crime, 2) why strains increase crime, and 3) the factors that lead a person to or dissuade a person from responding to strains with crime. Further, emotions such as anger appear to promote criminal tendencies, while emotions such as anxiety and fear appear to inhibit these tendencies (see also Aseltine et al., 2000; Piquero & Sealock, 2004). The strain theories of Merton, Cohen, and Cloward and Ohlin were influential throughout much of the 20th century and helped to inspire antipoverty efforts. It increases the likelihood that residents will interact with others who angry, upset, and potentially hostile. The data indicate that children who obtain high scores on a combined measure of negative emotionality/low constraint tend to report elevated levels of illicit drug use during adolescence and adulthood, controlling for other relevant variables. General strain theory has largely been used as a theoretical approach to study delinquency, crime, and antisocial behavior (in terms of the current study) for nearly three decades (Agnew, 1992 . Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Hong Kong Polytechnic, Hong Kong. To place these limitations into context one needs only draw on the literature documenting the characteristics of a "good" or "effective" theory. In longitudinal analyses, a summary measure of strain predicted future delinquency, even after controlling for measures of social control, delinquent peer associations, and prior delinquent behavior. GST offers a similar explanation of life-course-persistent offending but focuses special attention on the trait of aggressiveness (Agnew, 1997). Strain Theory argues that crime occurs when there arent enough legitimate opportunities for people to achieve the normal success goals of a society. As a result, compared to non-aggressive individuals, aggressive individuals are more likely to respond to various situations with anger and delinquent coping. This source looks beyond simply failing to achieve a goal of monetary success or doing well in school (Agnew 1992:53). In particular, strain appears to reduce social control and increase involvement with delinquent peers, thereby resulting in elevated rates of offending (see also Brezina, 1998). LIMITATION: Because GST is so diverse, researchers are unsure which strains to study. Numerous additional tests of GST have produced similar results, indicating a relationship between various strains and offending behavior (for an overview, see Agnew 2006). used for the formulation of the problem are actually applicable only for some special cases and are not suitable for general large strain and rotation rates. The theory recognizes that people in society are placed under several different forms of stress. Certain strains that fall into this categorysuch as racial discriminationhave been neglected by other theories. Results indicate that Agnew's theory provides a useful theoretical model for . An additional level of complexity has been introduced by studies that distinguish between situation-based emotions and trait-based emotions. The GST strains are not included in any of these inventories. Agnew cites that if in fact the previous theories were to be true, it would be expected that crime would occur when there would be there a strong desire for monetary success and a low expectation of fulfilling that desire (Agnew 1985). Durkheims theory was based upon the idea that the lack of rules and clarity resulted in psychological status of worthlessness, frustration, lack of purpose, and despair. Under certain conditions, however, criminal or delinquent responses to strain are more likely to occur. To address the mixed body of results produced by empirical studies, Agnew (2013) has further specified the conditions under which a deviant response to strain is more or less likely. General strain theorists recognize these factors, but they offer two additional reasons for the gender gap in crime and delinquency (Broidy & Agnew, 1997). One such theory, Agnew's General Strain Theory (GST), was derived from classic strain theory ideas developed from such criminologists as Merton . This type of access increases the likelihood that such youth will specialize in money-oriented crimes as opposed to drug use or violence. Failure to achieve valued goals. Strains that meet these conditions include parental rejection and abuse, harsh or excessive parental discipline, negative experiences in school (e.g., failing grades or negative relations with teachers), being the victim of bullying or other peer abuse, criminal victimization, marital problems (e.g., verbal or physical abuse), persistent unemployment or under-employment; racial discrimination, homelessness, residence in economically deprived neighborhoods, and the inability to satisfy strong desires for money, excitement, and masculine status. Tests of GST, however, point to other areas where further specification may be required. In addition, GST predicts that individuals who possess this trait will tend to provoke negative reactions from others, leading to elevated levels of strain. The first major type of strain involves the inability of individuals to achieve their goals, or goal blockage. Although classic strain theories also focused on goal blockage, they tended to focus on a single type of goal blockage; namely, a disjunction between aspirations and expectations. To cope with this frustration, status-frustrated boys tend to band together and rebel against middle-class expectations. Some empirical evidence regarding general strain theory shows a strong correlate between negative emotions (anger) caused by strain and criminal activity. Lets say a sales worker who thought they deserved a promotion due to good sales performance gets demoted while someone with less credentials get promoted. Based on a national sample of adolescents, Paternoster and Mazerolle (1994) find that the effect of strain on delinquency is partly mediated by social control and association with delinquent peers. (Note: the work of Merton also suggests that strain contributes to anomie, or a sense that the traditional rules no longer apply. Given the complexity of the coping process, he now argues that a single factor examined in isolationsuch as social support or association with delinquent peersis not likely, by itself, to shape the likelihood of deviant coping. This type of strain includes experiences in which the individual is exposed to undesirable circumstances or is the recipient of negative treatment by others, such as harassment and bullying from peers, negative relations with parents and teachers, or criminal victimization. General strain theory (GST) provides a unique explanation of crime and delinquency. Earlier versions of strain theory have been criticized for focusing on a narrow range of possible strains, for their inability to explain why only some strained individuals resort to crime or delinquency, and for limited empirical support. The idea of anomie means the lack of normal ethical or social standards. These strains may involve one-time events, are not likely to be blamed on others, are not easily resolved by engaging in crime, and thus generate little pressure for criminal coping. Weaknesses One weakness of the strain theory is that it does only focus on the middle and lower classes of society. Unstable Cycloalkanes originate due to divergences from the general tetrahedral angles. Young people in inner-city communities may also have a tendency to cope with strain in a delinquent manner, given both a lack of coping resources and limited options for legal coping. Theoretical Criminology, 14, 131-153. Cloward and Ohlin (1960) were also interested in the subcultural adaptions of juvenile gangs. Using data from the 2008 Youth in Europe Survey, this study applies general strain theory of deviance to suicidal behaviors of Turkish adolescents. These include strains that are high in magnitude (severe, frequent, of long duration, or involving matters of high importance to the individual), are seen as unjust and associated with low social control, and they can be readily resolved through crime. Using longitudinal data on South Korean youth, the authors addressed limitations of previous tests of general strain theory (GST), focusing on the relationships among key strains, situational- and trait-based negative emotions, conditioning factors, and delinquency. At the same time, certain strainsespecially chronic strains experienced in early childhoodmay promote the trait of aggressiveness, leading individuals to possess an angry and irritable temperament that transcends particular situations (Agnew, 1997). Durkheim argued that during rapid changes that take place in society, norms will breakdown. At the same time, however, opportunities for achieving monetary success are distributed unevenly in society. The third path, ritualism, describes a person that will reject the culture goals of society, but use its institutions as an avenue for advancement. However, the exact nature of the observed gender differences varies across studies. Over the years of its development, strain theorists have attempted to broaden the initial scope of this perspective. Furthermore, the GST's broad scope makes document forgery impossible. Here you can choose which regional hub you wish to view, providing you with the most relevant information we have for your specific region. Which of the following is a weakness of Mertons anomie theory? It is important to recognize that GST is an evolving theoretical framework. From simple essay plans, through to full dissertations, you can guarantee we have a service perfectly matched to your needs. GST recognizes that the experience of goal blockage can also result from the failure to achieve expected outcomes (e.g., the failure to receive an expected income) as well as the failure to achieve fair and just outcomes (e.g., the failure to receive a deserved income). Broidy (2001) asserts that by testing the theory with most middle-class, white college age students, it ensures that the results of the test are not spurious.. In contrast, most studies that have examined conditioning factors are based on general population samples. Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. The Essay Writing ExpertsUK Essay Experts. 6 How does the strain theory explain crime? But males are more likely to experience those particular types of strain that are strongly related to crime and delinquency, such as harsh parental discipline, negative school experiences, criminal victimization, and homelessness. Readers may also be interested in a book chapter titled, Controlling Delinquency: Recommendations from General Strain Theory (Agnew, 1995b), which provides an in-depth discussion of the policy implications of GST. According to GST, the experience of strain or stress tends to generate negative emotions such as anger, frustration, depression, and despair. Many previous studies rely heavily on samples from Western countries, mostly the United States; thus, possible cultural influences are ignored. General strain theory (GST) states that strains increase the likelihood of crime, particularly strains that are high in magnitude, are seen as unjust, are associated with low social control, and create some pressure or incentive for criminal coping. Foundation for a general strain theory of delinquency and crime. Drawing on the stress literature, Agnew (2006) broadened the definition of strain to include events or conditions that are disliked by individuals (p. 4). Merton noted that the deviant response to strain was one of five responses he observed in society. In another multilevel study of problem behavior in schools, de Beeck, Pauwels, and Put (2012) find that a school-level measure of strain, based on negative future prospects, predicts violence but not other delinquencies. Goal blockage may include the inability to achieve other valued goals, such as respect and masculine status (e.g., the expectation that one be treated like a man), autonomy (e.g., the desire to achieve a certain amount of personal independence), and the desire for excitement. Placed under several different forms of stress they encounter, there is a weakness of theory. Sort themselves into environments characterized by a low level of social support, linked! Weaknesses one weakness of Mertons theory focuses on the individual but some crime is a weakness of the gender! 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